20 5-Paragraph Essay Topics on Outsourcing and Global Remote Employment

20 5-Paragraph Essay Topics on Outsourcing and Global Remote Employment The direction and tone of an essay depends largely on the topic chosen by a student. Therefore, the choice of your topic plays a huge role in how you go about developing the body that either explains argues or compliments your stance on it. Therefore in the case of a 5-paragraph essay, it is imperative you first understand what is required of you before going ahead to choose a topic on outsourcing and global remote employment. A 5-paragraph essay is one that literarily consists of 5 paragraphs and follows a written format which must be followed to the letter. The paragraphs it consists of include an introductory paragraph, 3 paragraphs that make up its body and the concluding paragraph. In this article, we will attempt to build on the previous article which provided 10 5-paragraph facts on outsourcing and global remote employment and will play a major role in developing this article. This article will not only provide 20 essay topics but it will also include a short essay written according to one of the topics on this list in order to provide you with some direction on how to go about writing yours. The top 20 5-paragraph essay topics: The Importance of Outsourcing and Remote Employment to Manufacturing How Outsourcing Helps Manufacturers Meet Production Deadlines The Role Outsourcing and Remote Employment Play in Developing Nations Outsourcing and its Effects on GDP Growth in World Economies How Enterprises reduce Financial Expenditure through Global Outsourcing Discussing the Positive Effects of Outsourcing in Corporate Enterprises Explaining The Growth in Freelancing and Global Remote Employment Wage Disparities a Factor in Driving Global Outsourcing Practices The IT Industry and its Gains from Outsourcing Analyzing the Advantages and Disadvantages of Outsourcing Analyzing Outsourcing Practices in Information Technology The Growth in Legal Outsourcing: Who Stands to Gain? The Effects of Legal Outsourcing in Driving Globalization Discussing the Anomalies in Sales and Marketing Job Outsourcing Analyzing Why Enterprises Do Not Outsource Sales and Marketing Jobs The Role of India as Global Outsourcing Hub The Correlation between Outsourcing Manufacturing Jobs and China’s Big Leap Forward The Global Outsourcing Market Growth and its Positive Effects on World Economies Analyzing Global Remote Employment and its Negative Effects on the US Economy Making a Case for Outsourcing as Financial Support to Developing Economies These are the 20 topics we have outlined for your use when in need of essay topics on outsourcing and global remote employment. A majority of these topics will require certain facts and figures to help you make your argument and this is where the 10 facts mentioned earlier come in. Lastly, an added essay and our writer’s guide for 5-paragraph essay on outsourcing and global remote employment will be provided in the third article of this series. Sample 5-Paragraph Essay: The Role Outsourcing and Remote Employment Play in Developing Nations In order to grow the developing countries into fully developed nations, a lot of work must be done to increase the standard of living experienced by individuals in these regions. And one of the important things required for a better society is the provision of job opportunities to every individual who is qualified for one. Therefore, this essay will focus on how outsourced jobs and remote employment increase the standard of living in developing countries. Outsourcing generates approximately $500billion a year and most of these funds are paid as labour cost to workers and freelancers from developing regions such as India, China and parts of Africa. Enterprises in the western world have continued to embrace the flexibility offered by outsourcing for it enables these workers to save costs and minimize capital resources. Although in most cases, the fees received by freelancers or remote employees are quite small- when compared to how much their professional colleagues in western countries receive- these wages still account to the gross domestic product of the recipient’s country while also providing him or her with avenues to earn an income thereby increasing the individual’s quality of life. The Chinese and Indian economies have grown to their current sizes due to the large amount of jobs currently being outsourced to Asia. In 2014, a study found that 69% of all jobs outsourced from both the United States and Europe were completed in India. And a quick calculation- using $500 billion as estimated outsourcing cost will show that India earns approximately $200billion dollars from outsourcing which has gone a long way in developing its society in no small measure. China on the other hand, currently receives the bulk of outsourced manufacturing jobs and a 2015 estimate puts the number of outsourced jobs to China at approximately 2 million yearly. This goes to show that irrespective of the issues associated with cheap labour, the amount of jobs being outsourced still makes up for this. Although most of the financial gains fall on the part of the developing nation, statistics show that just about everyone involved in the outsourcing industry stand to gain a lot. On the part of the outsourcers, approximately 85% believe that outsourcing labour on the global stage is quite beneficial in saving cost while the employees or freelancers are provided with an avenue- which their country may not be able to provide- to earn a living. Also spending the received funds in one’s home country directly impacts the standard of living there in a positive manner. In conclusion, the developing world has a lot to gain from outsourcing for it provides these regions with opportunities to grow as well as create friendly policies for its citizens and business climate that can attract more investments from the developed world. The globalization outsourcing achieves in terms of shared labour should also be regarded in a positive light for it allows experts from both collaborating regions to share ideas, learn from one another and employ these ideas in bettering the lives of their people. References: Michael, C. (2004). The Outsourcing Revolution https://www.economist.com/media/globalexecutive/outsourcing_revolution_e_02.pdf Antonio, E. Onodera, O. (2007). Facilitating Trade and Structural Adjustment the Philippines. Lee, M. Tcha, M. (2004). The Color of Money: The Effects of Foreign Direct Investment on Economic Growth in Transition Economies. Review of World Economics, 140(2), pp.211-229. Houseman, S. (2010). Offshoring and the State of American manufacturing. [Kalamazoo, Mich.]: [W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research]. ì µÅ"ë‚ ¨Ã¬â€ž , Pyeong Tak Nahm, (2012). An Analysis of Wage Differential in Manufacturing by Global Outsourcing. The Journal of International Trade Commerce, 8(3), pp.15-34. Dhar, S. and Balakrishnan, B. (2006). Risks, Benefits, and Challenges in Global IT Outsourcing. Journal of Global Information Management, 14(3), pp.59-89.

Quotes From Flowers for Algernon by Daniel Keyes

Quotes From 'Flowers for Algernon' by Daniel Keyes Flowers for Algernon is a famous novel by Daniel Keyes. Its a bittersweet novel of a mentally disabled man named Charlie, who undergoes an experimental procedure to gain higher intelligence. The book follows his evolution from his low level, through his experiences of coming to understand the world around him. The book raises ethical and moral questions about the treatment of the disabled and happiness. The story is told through Charlies diaries and other documents. One of the ways Keyes portrayed Charlies intelligence was through the evolution of his spelling and  grammar.   Quotes From Flowers for Algernon Any one who has common sense will remember that the bewilderments of the eye are of two kinds, and arise from two causes, either from coming out of the light or from going into the light, which is true of the minds eye, quite as much as of the bodily eye; and he who remembers this when he sees any one whose vision is perplexed and weak, will not be too ready to laugh; he will first ask whether that soul of man has come out of the brighter life, and is unable to see because unaccustomed to the dark, or having turned from darkness to the day is dazzled by excess of light. And he will count the one happy in his condition and state of being, and he will pity the other.  -The Republic, Prefaceall my life I wantid to be smart and not dumb and my mom always tolld me to try and lern just like Miss Kinnian tells me but its very hard to be smart and even when I lern something in Miss Kinnians class at the school I ferget alot.  I dint know mice were so smart.  If your smart you can have lots of frends to talk to and you never get lonley by yourself all the time.   Some times somebody will say hey lookit Frank, or Joe or even Gimpy. He really pulled a Charlie Gordon that time. I dont know why they say it but they always laff and I laff too.I beet Algernon. I dint even know I beet him until Burt Selden told me. Then the second time I lost because I got so excited. But after that I beet him 8 more times. I must be getting smart to beat a smart mouse like Algernon. But I dont feel smarter.She says Im a fine person and Ill show them all. I asked her why. She said never mind but I shouldnt feel bad if I find out everybody isnt nice like I think.  One thing? I, like: about, Dear Miss Kinnian: (thats, the way? it goes; in a business, letter (if I ever go! into business?) is that, she: always gives me a reason when - I ask. Shes a genius! I coud be smart like-her, Punctuation , is? fun!  I never knew before that Joe and Frank and the others liked to have me around just to make fun of me. Now I know what they mean wen they say to pull a Charlie Gord on. Im ashamed. Now I want you to look at this card, Charlie. What might this be? What do you see on this card? People see all kinds of things in these inkblots. Tell me what it makes you think of.I was seeing them clearly for the first time - not gods or even heroes, but just two men worried about getting something out of their work.  It had been all right as long as they could laugh at me and appear clever at my expense, but now they were feeling inferior to the moron. I began to see that by my astonishing growth I had made them shrink and emphasized their inadequacies.  I had betrayed them, and they hated me for it.  Our relationship is becoming increasingly strained. I resent Nemurs constant references to me as a laboratory specimen. He makes me feel that before the experiment was not really a human being.  What did you expect? Did you think Id remain a docile pup, wagging my tail and licking the foot that kicks me? I no longer have to take the kind of crap that people have been handing me all my life.   Remembering how my mother looked before she gave birth to my sister is frightening. But even more frightening is the feeling that I wanted them to catch me and beat me. Why did I want to be punished? Shadows out of the past clutch at my legs and drag me down. I open my mouth to scream, but I am voiceless. My hands are trembling, I feel cold, and there is a distant humming in my ears.  It may sound like ingratitude, but that is one of the things I hate here - the attitude that I am a guinea pig. Nemurs constant references to having made me what I am, or that someday there will be others like me who will become real human beings. How can I make him understand that he did not create me?  They had pretended to be geniuses. But they were just ordinary men working blindly, pretending to be able to bring light into the darkness. Why is it that everyone lies? No one I know is what he appears to be.  Nothing in our minds is ever really gone. The operation had covered him over with a ven eer of education and culture, but emotionally he was therewatching and waiting.   Im not your friend. Im your enemy. Im not going to give up my intelligence without a struggle. I cant go back down into that cave. Theres no place for me to go now, Charlie. So youve got to stay away.  ARTIFICIALLY-INDUCED INTELLIGENCE DETERIORATES AT A RATE OF TIME DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE QUANTITY OF THE INCREASE.the men of the cave would say of him that up he went and down he came without his eyes.  I passed your floor on the way up, and now Im passing it on the way down, and I dont think Ill be taking this elevator again.  P.S. please if you get a chance put some flowers on Algernons grave in the back yard.

Database Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Database - Assignment Example The second layer is diversely treated by database modeling languages. Nevertheless, there are common features, especially type constructors. A common approach in most models is the generic definition of operations according to the structure of the type. The inductive specification of structuring is based on base types and type constructors. A type constructor is a function from types to a new type. The constructor can be supplemented with a selector for retrieval (like Select) with a retrieval expression and update functions (like Insert, Delete, and Update) for value mapping from the new type to the component types or to the new type, with correctness criteria and rules for validation, with default rules; current date for data assignment, with one or several user representations, and with a physical representation or properties of the physical representation. A base type is an algebraic structure B = (Dom(B); Op(B); Pred(B)) with a name, aSet of values in a domain, a set of operatio ns and a set of predicates. A class BC on the base type is a collection of elements from Dom (B). Usually, BC is required to be a set (DIETRICH, 2011). It can be also a list (denoted by ) multi-set ({|.|}), tree etc. Classes may be changed by applying operations. Elements of a class may be classified by the predicates. The value set can be discrete or continuous, finite or infinite. We typically assume discrete value sets. Typical predicates are comparison predicates such as ; Â ·; 6=; ?; =. Typical functions are arithmetic functions such as, - and x. The set of integers is given by the Integer Set. The base type is extended to a data type by explicit definition of properties of the under-lying value sets. Precision and accuracy; data can be precise to a certain extent. Precision is the degree of refinement in the calculations. Accuracy is a measure of how repeatable the assignment of values for properties is. Granularity: Scales can be fine or coarse. The accuracy of data depends on the granularity of the domain which has been chosen for the representation of properties. Ordering: The ordering of values of a given domain can be based on ordering schemes such as lexicographic, geographic or chronological ordering or on exact ordering such as orderings on natural numbers. The ordering can also be based on ontologies or categories. Scales have a range with lowest values and highest values. These values can be finite or infinite, if they are finite then overflow or underflow errors might be the result of a computation. Classification: The data can be used for representation of classifications; the classification can be linear, hierarchical, etc. The classification can be mono-hierarchical or poly-hierarchical, mono-dimensional, poly-dimensional, analytical, synthetically or even monothetic. The classification can be based on ontologies and can be maintained with thesauri. Presentation: The data type can be mapped to different representation types dependent on se veral parameters. For instance, in Web applications, the format chosen for presentation types of pictures depends on the capacity of the channel, on the compression etc. The presentation might be linear or hierarchical, and it can be layered. Implementation: The implementation the attribute type depends on the properties of the DBMS. The implementatio

Horizon Human Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Horizon Human Services - Essay Example Funding of Horizon Human Services derives mainly from governmental organizations such as the â€Å"ADHS, DES-CSA† to provide the services for victims of problems like â€Å"domestic violence† (Domestic Violence Services, 2013). So far it relates to funds for services in the areas of housing, they receive assistance from â€Å"US Department of Housing, Urban Development and the Arizona Department of Housing† (Community Housing, 2013). In addition, they also accept donations from the public as well as corporate entities.   Any person intending to avail the services of Horizon Human Services can call their office for an appointment with a screening specialist and once screening is completed, he or she will be sent to the intake specialist who will assess the individual and provide initial counseling to â€Å"help address the reason† for which services have been sought (Getting Started, 2013). People who seek services will have to produce their ID document, proof of income, social security, and any documents relating the problem they wish to address with the help of the organization. Major services, as per information on the â€Å"services† section of their site, include:   Adult Residential Services: It is a program for mentally ill or substance abusing adults, by providing â€Å"clean and tidy† therapeutic â€Å"environment,† as envisaged in quality social work practices, which is free of substances (Malley & Fernandez, 2010, p.561).   Community-Based Services: This is also a program targeted to mentally ill, within the community to help them cope with the problem. The services include counseling and monitoring of medication apart from a variety of other services that the patient requires from time to time.

Business Ethics Essay Example for Free

Business Ethics Essay What is ethics? What are some common ethical types? Why do business people need it? Can ethics be taught to people? Ethics is a study of morality, stems from the ancient Greek â€Å"ethos† meaning custom or habit. It is a study of theories concerning what is good and evil in human conduct. There is no particular set of laws defining what is ethical and what is not, because there is no right or wrong answer. The second sense of ethics speak of â€Å"codes of ethics†, which are a set of rules serve as guidance to people, often in fields of professions such as business or medical. Ethical contrasts with unethical, which goes against the codes of ethics. There are several ethical theories in Western philosophy. Many of them look at the fruits of one’s action – categorized under Consequentialism, while other theories uphold one’s right and duty, which is Deontology. Consequentialism pertains to cost and benefits. It deals with the results and consequences of performing or not performing an action. For example: If war brings more good (money, oil, labor) than bad (casualties) then it is ethical. Some consequentialist theories are utilitarianism and ethical egoism. Utilitarianism, according to Bentham and Mill, the right action is which creates the greatest good for the greatest number. People should ask what action would promote the greatest amount of happiness for people who are affected. For example: a utilitarian would say euthanasia is ethical if that would bring satisfaction to the suffering patient and financial relief to the family. Ethical egoism, according to Ayn Rand, says we should do what is purely in our best interest, as opposed to altruism. It promotes one’s well-being above others. Meanwhile deontology pertains to rights, duties or obligations. It concerns the morality of the action that is being performed (or not performed) rather than the results deriving from said action. In Kantian deontology, he promotes the Golden rules (don’t steal, don’t lie, don’t commit suicide) which are absolute rules that one must follow no matter what. Therefore it would be unethical to steal food even if it is for a dying person. In Lockean deontology, John Lock believes each individual is entitled to natural rights, such as right to live, right to freedom, right o pursue happiness, ect. Another theory is virtual ethics, which is similar to Confucianism, in that a person’s virtues are habits and characteristics that one exhibits. Business people need ethics because it helps prevent malpractices and corruptions. Business practitioners should refer to business codes of conduct as a guide to maintain good business practices that help safeguarding customer confidence, rights and satisfactions; protecting employees and shareholders’ interests and legal rights; and upholding healthy competitions among businesses. According to Socrates, ethics are what people ought to do and it can be taught. Psychologists also argue that a person’s ability to deal with moral issues is not formed since birth but develop gradually. I personally think a person’s moral can be shaped and that ethics should be taught, because without it we are left with a generation full of confused individuals whom are unable to comprehend and decide what right and what is wrong. That said, ethics should not be forced on people but should only serve as a guide and advisor. Because there is no uniform set of rules for ethics, it is subjective to the psycho-demographic and geographic of the teachers. A new learner should be given space to assess and confirm what he believes is right and wrong for himself. 2/ What is an argument? What makes it valid/invalid, sound/unsound, good/ bad, â€Å"true†? An argument is a collection of statements or propositions, including premises and conclusions, in an attempt to persuade another that the conclusion is true. The premises are intended to provide support and evidence in favor to the speaker’s stance, and in some cases they don’t success. There can be an indefinite number of premises, while there needs to be at least one conclusion. Conclusions are statements about the point the argument is trying to make. An argument needs to base on logic, in order to avoid logical fallacies (such as slippery slope argument) which make an argument bad, invalid or unsound. An argument is valid, or colloquially speaking, is good if the premises give logical and true reasons to prove that the conclusion is true. It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false, or if the conclusion follows from the premises in a logical way.

Algae is the Bio Fuel of the Future Essays -- Biofuel Fuel Energy Powe

Algae: Bio Fuel of the Future Bio Fuels are clearly the most suitable alternative energy of the future as oil and coal are both rapidly vanishing and increasingly out of interest for nations wishing to avoid terrorist nations. Recently, algae has been discovered as an extremely suitable bio fuel because of its surprisingly high ratio of yield to area required for growth. In 1960 Oswald and Golweke proposed the use of large†scale ponds for cultivating algae on wastewater nutrients and anaerobically fermenting the biomass into methane fuel. Algae, like all bio fuels, harvests the energy from water and sunlight to produce oil which can be converted into biodiesel as well as the carbohydrate content to be fermented into ethanol (Benemann, Olst, et al. 1). The concept of using vegetal oil as an engine fuel likely dates back to when Rudolf Diesel (1858†1913) developed the first engine to run on peanut oil, as he demonstrated at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 (Biodiesel 1). Using algae, however, is only a very recent concept as the first algae biodiesel plant only opened this year on April 1, 2008. The company, PetroSun, is expected to produce ≈4.4 million gallons of algal oil and 110 million lbs of biomass per year in their 1,000 acres. Fuel will not be produced immediately, but they will be building or acquiring ethanol and biodie sel production plants in the near future (Cornell 1). With the ever†rising prices of fossil fuels and the realization that our supply is severely limited, the need for an alternative energy source is rising steadily. Clearly the most efficient of the alternative options lies in bio fuels because they are naturally grown and thus have an unlimited supply, have virtually zero emissions, and can be us... ...n, Olst, et al. â€Å"The Controlled Eutrophication Process: Using Microalgae for CO2 Utilization & Agricultural Fertilizer Recycling†. June 2004. Accessed July 28, 2008. â€Å"Biodiesel†. Accessed July 27, 2008 Briggs, Michael. UNH Biodiesel Group. â€Å"Wide scale Biodiesel Production from Algae†. August 2004. Accessed July 28, 2008 Cornell, Clayton B. March 29, 2008. â€Å"First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1st 2008†. Accessed July 28, 2008 Haag, Amanda Leigh. March 29, 2007. â€Å"Pond†Powered Bio fuels: Turning Algae into America’s New Energy†. Accessed July 22, 2008. Algae is the Bio Fuel of the Future Essays -- Biofuel Fuel Energy Powe Algae: Bio Fuel of the Future Bio Fuels are clearly the most suitable alternative energy of the future as oil and coal are both rapidly vanishing and increasingly out of interest for nations wishing to avoid terrorist nations. Recently, algae has been discovered as an extremely suitable bio fuel because of its surprisingly high ratio of yield to area required for growth. In 1960 Oswald and Golweke proposed the use of large†scale ponds for cultivating algae on wastewater nutrients and anaerobically fermenting the biomass into methane fuel. Algae, like all bio fuels, harvests the energy from water and sunlight to produce oil which can be converted into biodiesel as well as the carbohydrate content to be fermented into ethanol (Benemann, Olst, et al. 1). The concept of using vegetal oil as an engine fuel likely dates back to when Rudolf Diesel (1858†1913) developed the first engine to run on peanut oil, as he demonstrated at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900 (Biodiesel 1). Using algae, however, is only a very recent concept as the first algae biodiesel plant only opened this year on April 1, 2008. The company, PetroSun, is expected to produce ≈4.4 million gallons of algal oil and 110 million lbs of biomass per year in their 1,000 acres. Fuel will not be produced immediately, but they will be building or acquiring ethanol and biodie sel production plants in the near future (Cornell 1). With the ever†rising prices of fossil fuels and the realization that our supply is severely limited, the need for an alternative energy source is rising steadily. Clearly the most efficient of the alternative options lies in bio fuels because they are naturally grown and thus have an unlimited supply, have virtually zero emissions, and can be us... ...n, Olst, et al. â€Å"The Controlled Eutrophication Process: Using Microalgae for CO2 Utilization & Agricultural Fertilizer Recycling†. June 2004. Accessed July 28, 2008. â€Å"Biodiesel†. Accessed July 27, 2008 Briggs, Michael. UNH Biodiesel Group. â€Å"Wide scale Biodiesel Production from Algae†. August 2004. Accessed July 28, 2008 Cornell, Clayton B. March 29, 2008. â€Å"First Algae Biodiesel Plant Goes Online: April 1st 2008†. Accessed July 28, 2008 Haag, Amanda Leigh. March 29, 2007. â€Å"Pond†Powered Bio fuels: Turning Algae into America’s New Energy†. Accessed July 22, 2008.

Zoonotic Diseases

Introduction Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases which can be transmitted from animals to man. Due to frequent contact and domestication of wildlife animals, zoonotic diseases are increasingly becoming more prevalent. Public parks and gardens are home to abundant populations of birds. One of the most frequent species known to thrive in such areas are feral pigeon (Columba livia). Although there are few reports of disease transmission between pigeons and humans, their close interaction with humans and ability to carry zoonotic pathogens make them a public health risk.In fact, these birds are present at very high densities (2,000 individuals per km2) and can cover a maximum distance of 5. 29 km (Dickx et al. , 2010). This may result in the increase risk of pathogen transmission among other birds and potentially to humans. Studies have shown that most infected pigeons do not show signs of clinical disease. These birds may therefore pose a public health risk to the human population . Pigeons, like many other bird species, can harbor diseases that can be zoonotic in nature. One of the pathogens most frequently carried by pigeons is Chlamydophila psittaci. C. sittaci is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes a disease in birds known as Psittacosis or Avian Chlamydiosis. Psittacosis is highly contagious and often causes influenza-like symptoms, severe pneumonia and non-respiratory health problems. Birds can shed this bacterium in the environment when they are either overtly ill or without any symptoms. C. psittaci occurs most frequently in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, parakeets. However, non-psittacine birds including pigeons, doves and mynah birds can also harbour the infectious agent (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005).Therefore, pigeons are thought to be an underestimated source of human chlamydiosis. Studies have shown that pigeons pose a substantial zoonotic risk as are often shown to be naturally infected with a number of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa that are pathogenic to humans. The potential for zoonotic infection is increased as these birds live in close contact with human beings. The aim of this overview is to present the zoonotic potential of C. psittaci in infected feral pigeon populations, in the context of its history, epidemiology and current approaches in treatment and prevention.Pigeon population in urban areas Commonly known as ‘urban’, ‘street’ or ‘city’ pigeons, the feral rock dove (C. livia) is an abundant bird species that often thrive in streets, squares and parks where they come into close contact with humans. Pigeon populations in most large cities increased worldwide after World War II. They have made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of war. Feral pigeons have been domesticated and were put to use by making them messengers due to their homing abilities (Dickx et al. , 2010).Pigeons are one of the few animal species able to survive in our noisy and hectic cities. They are extremely adaptable, which also enables them to accept breeding places that are unnatural to them, e. g. on trees or over running ventilation systems (Magnino et al, 2009). They are also a valuable enrichment to the urban environment as they have a cleaning up function by eating discarded food. In addition, they may represent as a tourist attraction as feeding and care of feral pigeons may be rewarding spare-time activities for many people who enjoy the company of animals (Magnino et al, 2009).The extensive food supply and minimal predator population has indeed provided the ecological basis for the large populations that occur in most cities of the world. Chlamydophila psittaci in pigeons The increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern as they are a source of a large number of zoonotic agents. The most important pathogenic organism transmissible from feral pigeons to humans is Chlamydophila psittaci. In fact, studies in Europe have shown as high as 95. 6% seropositivity values for C. psittaci in feral pigeon populations (Magnino et al. 2009). C. psittaci an obligate intracellular bacterium causes avian chlamydiosis in birds and psittacosis in humans.The bacterium is commonly recognised in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos and parakeets. It is also indentified in non-psittacine birds such as pigeons, doves and mynah birds (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). There are at least six distinct serovars (A to F) of C. psittaci considered endemic in birds (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Each serovar appears to be associated, though not exclusively, with a different group or order of irds, from which it is most commonly isolated. Genotype B is the most prevalent in pigeons, but the more virulent genotypes A and D have also been discovered (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). All serovars should be considered to be readily transmissible to humans. The av ian strains can infect humans and other mammals, and may cause severe disease and even death. In contrast to the devastating explosive outbreaks in the first half of the 20th century, the present outbreaks are characterized by respiratory signs and low mortality (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Chlamydophila psittaci has been demonstrated in about 465 bird species comprising 30 different bird orders (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). The highest infection rates are found in psittacine birds and pigeons. The first case of C. psittaci zoonotic transmission from pigeons was described in 1941. A mother and her daughter had picked up a sick feral pigeon in the street in New York City. The pigeon died after four days and, two weeks later, both mother and daughter developed psittacosis with fever and pneumonia (Dickx et al. , 2010).Since then, 47 zoonotic cases linked to pigeons have been reported (Dickx et al. , 2010). As a consequence, feral pigeon populations have been r epeatedly blamed as vectors for the transmission of C. psittaci infections to humans. Caution is needed, as zoonotic transmission from feral pigeons is known to be an underestimated source of infection. Psittacosis in birds Transmission of C. psittaci primarily occurs from one infected bird to another susceptible bird in close proximity. The agent is usually excreted in faeces and nasal discharges.From time to time, faecal shedding occurs and can be activated through stress caused by nutritional deficiencies, prolonged transport, overcrowding, chilling, breeding, egg laying, treatment or handling (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). Bacterial excretion periods during natural infection can vary depending on virulence of the strain, infection dose and host immune status. The most common routes of transmission of C. psittaci in nature are the inhalation and ingestion of contaminated material and, sometimes, ingestion (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). The bacterium can be also transmitted in the nest.In many species, such as columbiformes, transmission from parent to young may occur through feeding, by regurgitation, while the contamination of the nesting site with infective faeces are also important sources of infection (Vazquez et al. , 2010). Also the transmission of C. psittaci may also be facilitated by arthropod vectors in the nest environment, but its occurrence has not been assessed in the wild. Vertical transmission has been demonstrated in other types of avian species. However, occurrence appears to be fairly low. Chlamydiosis is a common chronic infection of pigeons.C. psittaci infection may result in lethargy, anorexia, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, diarrhea and excretion of green to yellow urates (West, 2011). Most infected feral pigeons are asymptomatic and latent carriers of C. psittaci, which makes it difficult to assess the risk of transmission of the bacterium to other animals, including humans. As mentioned earlier, increased shed ding of the infectious agents may be triggered by stress factors such as other concurrent infections or infestations, lack of food, breeding and overcrowding.It is important to note that as the density of nesting and roosting pigeons increases, the quality of life in the feral pigeon population deteriorates (Dickx et al. , 2010). In fact, excessive population density activates and stimulates regulation mechanisms that decimate nestlings and juvenile pigeons with infectious and parasitic diseases (Hedemma et al. , 2006). Crowded breeding places make pigeons behave more aggressively, which again mostly affects nestlings and juveniles that are the weakest members of the population, leading to a progressive spoiling of their physical condition.Thus, it is important for feral pigeon populations to be managed carefully in the urban environment to obtain an appropriate- sized and healthy population. Psittacosis in humans Although psittacine birds are the major source of human infection, ou tbreaks due to exposure to non-psittacine birds may also occur. The more common of these are due to exposure to pigeons, both wild and domestic. Humans most often become infected by inhaling the organism when urine, respiratory secretions or dried faeces of infected birds are dispersed in the air as very fine droplets or dust particles (Smith et al. , 2011).Other sources of exposure include mouth-to-beak contact, a bite from an infected bird or handling the plumage and tissues of infected birds (Smith et al. , 2011). A study by Smith et al. (2011) suggests that more than half of the human cases were due to exposure to C. psittaci through contaminated dust, direct contact with pigeons through feeding and handling pigeons. In addition, about 40 of the cases resulted from transient contacts with feral pigeons such as eating lunch in a park frequented by pigeons, walking through a pigeon flock, and living in a neighbourhood frequented by pigeons (Vazquez et al. 2010). The disease in hum ans varies from a flu-like syndrome to a severe systemic disease with pneumonia and possibly encephalitis. The disease is rarely fatal in patients treated promptly and correctly. The incubation period is usually 5–14 days, but longer incubation periods are known (Smith et al. , 2011). Common symptoms of infection in humans include headache, chills, malaise and myalgia, with or without signs of respiratory involvement (Smith et al. , 2011). Therefore, awareness of the danger and early diagnosis are important. Transmission of psittacosis from human to human is rare but can occur.Transmission from humans to birds has not been documented. Diagnoses The diagnosis of C. psittaci infections in birds can be a problem because of the occurrence of persistent infections in non-shedding clinically healthy birds. Isolation of C. psittaci is currently regarded as the standard method for the determination of active infections of birds. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have been al so used to detect C. psittaci in samples of tissues, feces and respiratory specimens, and were found to be quite sensitive and rapid. Diagnoses can also be established by clinical presentation and positive antibodies against C. sittaci using microimmunoflourescence (MIF) methods (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Conventional ELISA tests have been developed for detecting antibodies to C. psittaci in birds, however, it tends to sensitivity and specificity. Treatment No commercial vaccine is available for avian chlamydiosis. Antibiotic treatment of birds is the usual response to known infections. Tetracyclines are usually considered the drugs of choice although quinolones or macrolides have also been used (Tully, 2001). Chlortetracycline (CTC) is given on food depending on the bird species to be treated and type of food (Tully, 2001).Another drug that has also proved to be effective is doxycycline, which has been used for injecting and to treat bird food/ drinking water. Tetracycline antibio tics are the drug of choice for C. psittaci infection in humans. Mild to moderate cases can be treated with oral doxycycline or tetracycline hydrochloride (West, 2011). Severely ill patients should be treated with intravenous (IV) doxycycline hyclate. Treatment with antimicrobial drugs in humans usually lasts for 3 weeks while birds are treated for 45 days. Most C. psittaci infections are responsive to antibiotics within 1 to 2 days, however relapses can occur (Seth-Smith et al. 2011). Therefore sensible use of these drugs is very important, to prevent the development of drug-resistant bacterial strains Prevention Management of feral pigeon populations in the urban environment is a complex issue that requires careful planning. Education initiatives to communicate the health risks and recommendations for minimizing these risks should primarily be directed at susceptible groups such as the elderly, young children, immunosupressed individuals, homeless, and occupationally exposed group s (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Children should be warned not to handle sick or dead pigeons and immunocompromised individuals should be educated to carefully limit their contact with feral pigeons. Strict hygienic procedures should also be enforced when dealing with birds. Pigeon feeders should be encouraged to stop or limit their activity by implementing a feeding ban in defined urban areas (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009). Furthermore, preservation of urban hygiene is very important and should be included in the aims of administrators and health officials, as it will lead to a reduced and healthier feral pigeon population (Vazquez et al. , 2010).The relationship between feeding, overcrowding, and the deterioration of living conditions of pigeons, should be the main focus when educating the general public. Monitoring for C. psittaci infections over time, by direct detection of the organism and/or by specific antibody testing, should also be considered in tho se who are in frequent close contact with bird puplations (ie. occupationally exposed workers) (Smith et al. , 2011). In addition, preventive measures such as wearing protective clothes with hoods, boots, gloves and air filter face masks should be worn when removing pigeon faeces from roofs, attics and/or buildings.Finally, for the sake of animal protection, visibly sick birds should be captured and taken into veterinary care where they should be appropriately treated with effective drugs such as tetracyclines, quinolones or macrolides (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). . Conclusion Feral pigeons, more commonly known as ‘urban’ or ‘city’ pigeons, are present in both urban and rural areas all over the world. Due to frequent and close contact with people, pigeons are a public health concern as they are a source of many zoonotic agents.In particular Chlamydophila psittaci, a bacterium known to cause psittacosis in both birds and humans (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanro mpay, 2009). Due to the growing population of pigeons, contact with infected pigeons or pathogen transmission is greatly increased. The infectious agent can be easily transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated dust and aerosols from infected pigeons or their feces. Once infected, people suffer from various conditions including mild influenza-like symptoms or severe pneumonia.In addition, the huge increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern due to the detrimental effect of pigeon droppings on environmental hygiene. Therefore it is important to monitor the health of both city bird populations and humans who come in close contact with possibly infected birds. As well, awareness and preventative measures must be taken into consideration when handling infected birds or their feces. Furthermore, management of feral population and preservation of urban hygiene is very important in controlling psittacosis. Work Cited Aundria West.A brief rev iew of Chlamydophila psittaci in birds and humans. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine. 2011. 20:18–2. 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